(Reference: Pamela E. Macintyre,Stephan A. Schug. ACUTE PAIN MANAGEMENT; A PRACTICAL GUIDE)
👹Tachycardia, hypertension
👹increased myocardial oxygen consumption, myocardial ischemia
👹 Decreased lung volumes, atelectasis, decreased cough, sputum retention, infection, hypoxemia
👹Decreased gastric and bowel motility
👹Urinary retention
👹Increased catabolic hormones: glucagon, growth hormone, vasopressin, aldosterone, renin, and angiotensin
👹Reduced anabolic hormones: insulin, testosterone
👹Catabolism leads to hyperglycemia, increased protein breakdown and negative nitrogen balance; ➡️impaired wound healing and muscle wasting
👹 Muscle spasm, immobility (increasing risk of deep-vein thrombosis-->pulmonary embolism) and muscle wasting
👹 Chronic (persistent) pain due to central sensitization
👹 Anxiety, fear, helplessness, sleep deprivation—leading to increased pain and potential long-term psychological effects
